Man was born free and is everywhere in chains Essay Example

Man was brought into the world free and is wherever in chains Essay Example Man was brought into the world free and is wherever in chains Paper Man was brought into the world free and is wherever in chains Paper p. 29. 9 Ibid, p. 33. 10 Alexis de Tocqueville, The old Regime and the French unrest (New York: Double Day Anchor Books, 1955), p. 69. (unique distributed 1856, distributer obscure) 11 Cited in Carter, p. 41. 12 Cited in Andrew Heywood, Modern Political Ideologies (London: Macmillan Press, 1992), p. 127. 13 Richard Sylvan, Anarchism in Goodin, Robert, Philip Pettit (ed. ), An ally to Contemporary Political Philosophy (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell, 1993), pp. 215-242. 14 Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies: An Introduction (London: Macmillan Press, 1992). p. 193. 15 George Growder, Classical Anarchism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). p. 191. 16 April Carter, p. 169. 17 David Miller, Anarchism, (London: J. M. Scratch Sons Ltd, 1984), p. 171. 18 George Growder, Classical Anarchism, p. 192. 19 Ibid,. p. 193. 20 Norman, P. Barry, An introduction to present day political hypothesis, (London: Macmillan Press, 1981). p. 83. 21 John Passmore, The Perfectibility of Man (London: Duckworth, 1970), p. 189. 22 Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies, p. 211. 23 Harold Barclay, People Without Government, p. 134. 24 David Morland, Anarchism, Human Nature and History, in Jon Purkis James Bowen (ed. ), Twenty-first Century Anarchism (London: Cassell Press, 2000), pp. 8-21. p. 21. 25 Goaman, Karen Mo Dodson. , A Subversive Current? : Contempory Anarchism Considered in Jon Purkis James Bowen (ed. ), Twenty-first Century Anarchism (London: Cassell Press, 2000), pp. 83-97. 26 Murray Bookchin, Anarchism, Marxism, and the Future of the Left (Edinburgh: A. K. Press, 1999). p. 154. 27 Andrew Heywood, p. 211. 28 David Miller, Anarchism, p. 183. Andrew Wallace/1592038/Dr. P. Bradshaw/Political Science/MAS2010.

How WW1 Led To WW2 Essay Example for Free

How WW1 Led To WW2 Essay WW1 was the most grim war up until that time. With the focal forces battling the associated powers, germany was crushed and compelled to assume all fault for WW1 which prompted WW2. They had to concede the war was their issue, pay all harms, and lose their military. After the war, all forces met in France and talked about the bargain of versailles and every single unified force with the exception of the U.S. made Germany sign the record and concede that the war was completely their issue. They trusted it would shield Germany from beginning another war however in all actuality it started them to seek retribution. Likewise in the bargain, the partnered powers constrained them to pay for all costs in the war. The all out cost was well over a billion dollars. This hurt the financial arrangement of Germany and they couldnt pay for everything. It started the Germans to indeed seek retribution on the united powers and oversee their nation once more. IN the arrangement, the military force was quit Germany. They were currently left unprotected. When Adolf Hitler comes to control the main thing he does is reestablish the military and naval force so Germany isnt totally defenselss and he needs the most grounded armed force on the planet to return out and rout the associated powers. Despite the fact that all the partnered powers needed was full vengeance on Germany for their numerous costs and casualities, it prompted another war loaded with more costs and casualities. Hitler ventured into power and didnt think it was reasonable for the Germans to be dealt with along these lines. WW2 then starts and it the most dangerous war ever.

The Common App Announces New Application for Transfer Students - College Essay Advisors Admissions Essay Experts

The Common App Announces New Application for Transfer Students - College Essay Advisors Admissions Essay Experts The Common App Announces New Application for Transfer Students The Common App Announces New Application for Transfer Students The Common App has been a staple for college applicants for years, allowing undergraduate hopefuls to apply to multiple schools through the power of one application (with the choice of one essay prompt). The problem, however, was that all applicants found themselves facing an application meant for high school seniors, when only a fraction of Common App users fit that description. The Common App has finally acknowledged this disconnect, announcing that they will be introducing an application designed specifically for transfer students that accounts for the rich and diverse experiences of adults nationwide. In their announcement, The Common App cited the National Center for Education Statistics, saying that High School seniors only accounted for 15% of current undergraduates. The remaining 85% of undergrads are students who began at community colleges, joined the military, or are returning students seeking a higher degree. Since the current Common App appeals to only 15% of the student body, it makes perfect sense that they are adapting to keep up with the modern transfer applicant. The President and CEO of The Common Application, Jenny Rickard said, “Providing a dynamic and robust application for this important, but under-recognized group of learners will promote inclusiveness and expand educational opportunity for more individuals who are seeking post-secondary education.” The new application will be available for 10 to 12 colleges in early 2018 with a full release scheduled for August 2018. As always, we will be keeping tabs on any new updates and are always available to help transfer students brainstorm innovative ways to present their best selves to admissions, regardless of the platform they use! About Kat StubingView all posts by Kat Stubing » Ready to get started? Give College Essay Academy a Try. WATCH CHAPTER 1 FOR FREE »

Review of The Crucible Essay - 1479 Words

Review of The Crucible The Crucible was set in Salem, Massachusetts, 1692. The government was a theocracy, ruled by god through religious officials. Hard work and church consumed the majority of a Salem residents time and within the community there were simmering disputes over land. Matters of boundaries and deeds were a source of constant, bitter disagreements. The Puritans lived a strict, rigid and†¦show more content†¦And this, along with her willingness to discard Puritan social restrictions, sets her apart from the other characters, she sees no folly in her affair with John Proctor. She resents Elizabeth because she has convinced herself that Proctor is in love with her and not Elizabeth and in Abigails eyes Elizabeth prevents her from being with Proctor. For the first and only time in the play we see Abigail as her age, Abigails fantasy reflects her age, she is a young girl daydreaming about the ideal male, but all other times in the play, she is projected as older than she actually is. Abigail bears most of the responsibility for the girls meeting with Tituba in the woods, when Parris discovers them she attempts to conceal her behaviour because it will reveal her affair with Proctor, and if she confessed to casting a spell on Elizabeth this would no doubt have started herself being charged of Witchcraft. So in order to prevent these charges and the discovery of her affair as well of the fact of attempted murder, she shifts the focus away from herself by accusing others of witchcraft. This desperate act of self preservation soon becomes Abigails venue of power. The witch trials, in which Abigail and the girls are allowed to act as though they have direct connection to god, empower the previously almost powerlessShow MoreRelatedReview Of The Crucible 1291 Words   |  6 Pagesdifferent. People in today’s society tend to relate this topic to politics because it is most commonly occurs within that faction of society. Corruption is a reoccurring theme throug hout The Crucible, it shows through the political, McCarthyism, religious and personal reasons of the Colonial Era. The Crucible takes place in the early England colonies in Salem, Massachusetts during what we know as the witch trials. It is based on a group of girls involved in â€Å"witch like† activities, who begin to accuseRead MoreReview Of The Crucible 1448 Words   |  6 PagesFebruary 4, 2015 The Damaging Impacts of Jealousy in The Crucible In a healthy community everyone helps each other, supports each other and everyone is working towards being happy. In a healthy community the people need laws, trust, respect, and collaboration. However in the real world jealousy can easily creep into our lives and destroy our relationships. When trust is broken people lose respect in people and then get jealous. In his play The Crucible Arthur Miller exposes the damaging results that jealousyRead MoreThe Crucible Movie Review839 Words   |  4 PagesThe Crucible The movie the crucible is based upon a play that was written by an author by the name of Arthur Miller. The movie is based around the Salem witch trial which took place in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. Where a bunch of young girls in the community of Salem had just simply went into the woods with an African American slave woman named tituba to create a love potion for young men to fall in love with them like any other normal young girl might think would just be fun. The girls were thenRead MoreThe Crucible Play Review : An Overall Look And Detailed908 Words   |  4 PagesThe Crucible Play Review With an Overall Look and Detailed Look into Specific Design Aspects Garrett L. Mize Lonestar College- Kingwood Author Notes Garrett L. Mize, Student at Lonestar College. Garrett L. Mize, Still a Student at Lonestar College. This research was self funded by the parties named. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Garrett Mize, Kingwood TX, 77381 Contact: mize.garrett@gmail.com I attended â€Å"The Crucible†, at Lonestar College. The playRead MoreAnalysing the Historical Content of the Crucible1409 Words   |  6 PagesIn this essay, I intend to analyse the historical content of The Crucible and its relevance in today s society. I believe that Arthur Miller s life and his experience of McCarthyism strongly influenced the writing of The Crucible. McCarthyism, named after Joseph McCarthy was a period of intense anti-communism, which occurred in the United States from 1948 to about 1956. During this time the government of the United States persecuted the Communist party USA, its leadership, and many others suspectedRead MoreThe Witch Hunt in The Crucible and During the Time of McCarthyism1356 Words   |  6 Pages In this essay, I intend to analyse the historical context of The Crucible and its relevance in today’s society. I believe that Arthur Miller’s life and his experience of McCarthyism strongly influenced the writing of The Crucible. McCarthyism, named after Joseph McCarthy was a period of intense anti-communism, which occurred in the United States from 1948 to about 1956. During this time the government of the United States persecuted the Communist party USA, its leadership, and many others suspectedRead MoreThe Effects Of Hysteria In The Crucible1489 Words   |  6 Pagesfor. Hysteria is a major leader in past and present day society when it comes to how people act and think in different situations. The Crucible provides great examples with how hysteria can affect a group of people. Back in Salem, Massachusetts 1692, hysterics swept the town, creating storms of emotion. Everyone is wondering, what to do? What to think? In The Crucible, Arthur Miller uses the effects of mass hysteria to reveal his purpose of using it in his writing, how society at that time reacts toRead MoreHysteria In The Crucible1474 Words   |  6 Pagesamong groups, is a major leader in past and present day society when it comes to how pe ople act and think in different situations. The Crucible provides great examples with how hysteria can affect a group of people. Back in Salem, Massachusetts 1692, hysterics swept the town, creating a storm of emotions. Everyone wondering, what to do? What to think? In The Crucible, Arthur Miller uses the effects of mass hysteria to reveal his purpose of using it in his writing, how society at that time reacts toRead MoreThe Crucible By Arthur Miller Essay1552 Words   |  7 PagesTrust, Honor and Faith is what is questioned in Arthur Miller â€Å"The Crucible†. The Crucible is about the Salem witch trials. Several young girls claim to be afflicted by witchcraft. The afflicted girls accuse people in the town of witchcraft, often choosing victims who they or their families dislike. The main antagonist Abigail Williams with the other girl’s accusations resulted in the arrests and death of many people in the community of Salem. Arthur Miller wrote this play during the time of theRead MoreThe Crucible By Arthur Mills Essay1690 Words   |  7 Pagesname! Because I cannot have another in my life! Because I lie and sign myself to lies! Because I am not worth the dust on the feet of them that hang! How may I live without my name? I have given you my soul; leave me my name! (Miller, 133) As The Crucible commences, Arthur Mills transports the reader to 17th century Salem, Massachusetts, to reenact the affliction of the Salem Witch Trials, ultimately leading to regret and fatality. Miller utilizes his troubled experience with McCarthyism to ad vance

The Mozart Effect Essay - 1461 Words

â€Å"Mozart effect† is a believe that listening to music could enhance individuals’ intelligence, and therefore lead to better performance in various spheres, such as languages and arithmetics. There are researches pointed out that listening to music while tasks performance would result in significant boost of scores. The effect of listening to Mozart’s music on spatial seasoning was looked over in 1933 by Dr. Rauscher, three common tests about abstract spatial reasoning were given to the participants after they were exploded to three conditions, (1) Mozart K. 448; (2) verbal mitigation instructions; (3) silence. It turned out that a provisional improvement of spatial-reasoning was found under the condition (1). Moreover, it is commonly seen†¦show more content†¦It was also indicated that musical training could lead to longstanding intelligence improvement (Motluk, 1997; Zupan, 2000; cited Aheadi, 107), such thesis has created a trend of learning music al instruments all over the world, parents spend uncountable expenses on children music education. Take one music institution in Hong Kong, Parkland Music, as an example. According to the course list of Parkland Music, one 45 minutes pre-grade violin class will cost 195 HKD (around 25 USD), when promoted to Grade 8, it will cost 415 HKD (around 53 USD) per class. If one has class per week, more than hundreds would be paid for the classes. This often cost a very heavy financial burden to many families. However, no proof of long-term performance enhancement was found among most existing research about the influence of music listening to intellectual development of individuals. For examples, Hall (1952) and Mitchell (1949) illustrated that background music could lead to enhancement in reading comprehension while Fogelson (1937) and Kiger (1989) reported that no noticeable effect was discovered. There were also researchers who addressed that background music did not have any effect on test enhancement (Henderson, Crews, Barlow, 1945; Mowswsian Heyer, 1973) In fact, Dr. Rauscher clarified that the enhancement caused in condition (1) was just a short-term progress, which lasted no longer than 15 minutes. In addiction, participants in theShow MoreRelatedThe Mozart Effect Essay931 Words   |  4 PagesIt has long been believed that music can evoke specific thoughts and feelings from the listener. But can music –specifically the music of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart- summon hidden in telligences within the human brain? That is the question scientists are trying to answer. In the mid-nineties, scientists, Frances Rauscher, Gordon Shaw and Katherine Ky, claimed that music could boost the listener’s intelligence up to 9 points (Steele 2). To many, this allegation seemed a bit far-fetched and soon otherRead More The Mozart Effect Essay1215 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mozart Effect Ever since human intelligence has been a factor for survival, people have been trying to think of new, innovative ways to increase their mental capabilities. In the past, people have taken pills, prepared home-made concoctions, and have even shaven their heads to clear their minds. Even now, new ideas, such as magnetic mattresses for better blood circulation to the brain, are patented and sold promising mental wellness and stability – and making money for the inventor. WhenRead MoreEssay on Psychology: The Mozart Effect1332 Words   |  6 Pagesthis end, this essay will evaluate the questionable validity of the â€Å"Mozart Effect†. The Mozart Effect implies that playing Mozart to a baby will increase its cognitive abilities, a claim which has instigated a rapidly increasing market of â€Å"CDS to make your baby smarter†. This claim, despite having partial merit and widespread popular acceptance, is fundamentally incorrect. Through the analysis of various attem pted replication studies, it is abundantly clear that the ‘Mozart Effect’ is a falsehoodRead MoreEssay On Mozart Effect1061 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mozart Effect, broadly stated, is the idea that music can help with many other aspects of a student’s education. Its research started decades ago and is still highly debated today, with some condition to the findings. However, in Bob Duke’s article, he explains why it doesn’t matter whether of not it helps tests scores. He believes we should not be using this as an excuse for keeping music programs because there are countless better reasons. Duke’s article highly reinforced why I personally believeRead More The Mozart Effect Essay1250 Words   |  5 PagesThe Mozart Effect is a study that shows listening to classical music can have positive effects on learning and attitude. This occurrence is called the Mozart Effect, and it has been proven in experiments by many scientists. This research has caused much controversy between believers and nonbelievers, because The Mozart Effect is said to enhance the brain and reasoning; it is also used to reduce stress, depression, or anxiety; it induces relaxation or sleep; and the Mozart Effect activates the bodyRead MoreEssay about The mozart effect1002 Words   |  5 Pages The Mozart Effect Does classical music really help you study better? Many recent research studies show that music idoes in fact improve cognitive thinking. In 1993, researchers at the University of California at Irvine discovered the so-called Mozart Effect - that college students â€Å"who listened to ten minutes of Mozarts Sonata for Two Pianos in D major K448 before taking an IQ test scored nine points higher† than when they had sat in silence or listened to relaxation tapes. Other studies haveRead MoreClassical Music: The Mozart Effect Essay1402 Words   |  6 PagesThe Mozart effect is a phenomena whereby listening to ten minutes of Mozart’s music, a person’s spatial IQ is boosted by 8-9 points (on the Stanford-Binet IQ Scale), in comparison to listening to ten minutes of a relaxation tape or silence (Rauscher, Shaw and Ky, 1993). This literature review critically assesses the key works and concepts concerning the Mozart effect, specifically its methodologies, its limits, a nd finally, alternative theories. While some academics argue that ‘listening to MozartRead MoreThe Life and Works of Ludwig van Beethoven Essay657 Words   |  3 Pagescreativity each one brought. Through this essay we will learn many things about Beethoven and his works. A symphony for starters is a musical composition for full orchestra, typically in four movements where at least one is in sonata form. A sonata is also a composition in several movements from one to eight instruments but a sonata form is a form of a single movement. Beethovens symphonies have some similarities and differences between Hayden and Mozart. Each one of these composers in the classicalRead MoreGrit Vs. Iq : Cognitive Development Essay965 Words   |  4 Pagesfocus of this essay is to evaluate whether grit or IQ has the most positive effect on cognitive development. Throughout history there have been demonstrations of grit and the correlation to cognitive ability developing strongly through childhood. Mozart, was most commonly related to being a â€Å"child prodigy†, having an extremely high IQ and musically based talent (Ericsson, Prietula and Cokely 2007, p. 3). What is not universally known about the development of his ability is that Mozart was fatheredRead MoreMusic As A Universal Experience1375 Words   |  6 Pages This experiment was inspired by the Mozart effect work. For those who are unaware, the Mozart effect can refer to: listening to Mozart during study or learning to help enhance the short term or spatial learning. There have been many books and studies done on this theory. In one study done by J S Jenkins it was concluded that: The original experiments on adults exposed to Mozart s music were of short duration only. In related experiments, long-term effects of music were studied in groups of pre-school

Development and Globalisation Free Essays

string(208) " been outsourcing of service operations, such as call centres, Mumbai, this extends the influence on a global scale also the employment costs are a lot lower even though there is a highly educated workforce\." Development and Globalisation Development A process of social and economic advancement in terms of the quality of human life. Development can involve can involve economic, demographic, social political and cultural changes. Development is a term that can be used in many different contexts whether it is social, economical, political etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Development and Globalisation or any similar topic only for you Order Now However generally development refers to an improvement in certain areas: †¢ Economic o An increase in the country’s economy with a shift from secondary to tertiary industry which becomes less dependent on FDI. †¢ Demographic An increase in population and a more ageing population as standard of living increases. Birth rates and death rates drop as life expectancy increases. †¢ Social o An increase in the range of services, increased land prices and a more multicultural society. Greater access to education, health care and communication †¢ Political o More democratic and more influence on the ‘global stage’. Stable government, no dictatorship. †¢ Cultural development o Greater equality for women and better race relations in multicultural societies. Measuring Development Associated essay: Political Parties Are The Pillars of Democracy GDP- Gross Domestic Product – the value of all the goods and services produced in a country in a year, in $US, usually expressed as â€Å"per capita† (per person). PPP (purchasing power parity)* figures are more useful. *Adjusted for loss of living GNP- The total value of goods and services produced by one country in a year, plus all net income earned from overseas sources, in $US. HDI- Human Development Index: It is a summary composite index that measures a country’s average achievements in three basic aspects of human development: health, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. Life Expectancy †¢ Literacy Rate †¢ Standard of Living (measured in GDP per capita) It gives a more complete picture of development of a country than GDP alone as it considers social factors and not just economic factors. Development Continuum Originally there were three groupings that made up the development continuum, they were: †¢ First World (those developed countr ies that had a democratic government and a strong economy) †¢ Second World (communist countries) †¢ Third World (UN developed countries) However as time has gone on newer economies have started to develop caused by different development patterns and speeds. The Development gap †¢ The gap between rich and poor countries †¢ Most commonly, the gap is thought of in terms of income/economics †¢ It also social, environmental and even political aspects There was a suggested North/South divide originating from the Brandt report in 1980, where the north accounted for 80% of GDP but only 20% of the population; however this too requires some artistic licence and is a very general way of dividing countries. There are more accurate ways of grouping countries as listed below and as countries move through the development continuum countries pass from one category to another: †¢ Developed (MDC’s – the most well developed countries eg. UK) †¢ Developing (Countries which are undergoing development – arguably they all are. Eg. Malaysia) †¢ LDC’s (Least Developed Countries – eg. Ethiopia) †¢ NIC’s (Newly Industrialised Countries – Have just finished development (10 years or so) Eg. China) †¢ RIC’s (Recently Industrialised Countries – Further behind than the NIC’s eg. Dubai) Centrally Planned Economies (The few remaining communist countries eg. North Korea) †¢ Oil Rich Countries (Countries rich in oil eg. Saudi Arabia) Causes for the Development Gap †¢ Colonialisation – colonial powers took resources from poorer countries †¢ Price of commodities is often controlled by TNCs ensurin g high profits for MEDC firms and low prices paid to LEDC producers – Fair trade set up in reaction to this. †¢ LEDCs are now primary producers – producing low cost commodities, e. g. bananas †¢ Primary commodities have fallen in price, or stayed steady, while commodities they need has increased, e. . oil What is preventing the Development gap from closing? †¢ Many LEDCs main industry is as primary producers – generally low profit †¢ Internatnioal trade dominated by TNCs †¢ Rapid The Asian Tigers Who or what are the Asian Tigers? Asian economies that have progressed economically at such substantial rates that have come to rival the earning capacity and quality of living of those being first-world countries – Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and South Korea. Globalisation Globalisation: The increased inter-connection in the world’s economic, cultural and political systems. Positives |Negatives | |Allowed the movement of people more easily |Uncontrolled migration | |Increased foreign trade |Inequality in wealth | |More access to food, services, healthcare etc. ll over the world |Heavy environmental cost | | |Loss of countries individual cultures, global cutters | †¢ Globalisation began in the 19th century as there was the beginning of movement of people and goods; †¢ Increase in independence †¢ Increase in trade as well as the spread of industry †¢ Beginning of Trans National Corporations. Globalisation continued in the 20th century and was shaped by a number of factors including: 1. Emergence of free markets (capitalist economy) 2. Deregulation of world financial markets 3. The establishment of the General Agreements of Tariffs and Trade (GATT) –the WTO which sought to lower trade barriers. 4. The emergence of trade blocs 5. The establishment of the IMF and the World Bank 6. Development of global marketing and the continuing rise of TNCs. Flows †¢ Capital o ICT allows cheap, reliable and almost instantaneous communication o Allows sharing information o Allows transfer of capital o Allows Marketing around the world †¢ Labour o Improved transport for people Size of air craft o Low cost airlines o High speed rail links o Specialised workers- doctors, ICT etc. o Unskilled workers †¢ Products and services o Integrated networks o Goods handling o Computing logistics o Container revolution o Improved transport for goods o Global marketing, the world as one market and create products that fit various regional market places e. g. coca-cola and McDon alds Patterns of production, distribution and consumption Manufacturing has gone from developed countries to lower wage economies. This is known as the GLOBAL SHIFT, which is brought about by FDI by TNCs. Many LEDC’S have benefited from the transfer of technology which has meant these countries can raise their productivity without raising their wages to the level of the developed countries. This has lead to the de-industrialisation of richer countries and the focus on tertiary and quaternary industry. There has also been outsourcing of service operations, such as call centres, Mumbai, this extends the influence on a global scale also the employment costs are a lot lower even though there is a highly educated workforce. You read "Development and Globalisation" in category "Essay examples" Positive and negatives of the global shift Positives for MEDCs |Negatives for MEDCs | |Movement of polluting industries away from their country |Could lead to wide spread unemployment | |Growth in LEDC’s may lead to demand for exports from MEDCs |Loss of skills | |Cheaper imports can keep the cost of living down benefiting the retail |Negative multiplier effect | |sector |Large gap betwe en skilled and unskilled workers who may experience | |Labour market flexibility and efficiency |extreme redeployment differences | |Development of new technologies leading to investment |deindustrialisation of some areas, such as the North | |Help to reduce inflation | | |Positives for LEDC’s and NIC’s |Negatives for LEDC’s | |Development of new industries Rapid urbanisation and rural-urban migration | |Increased employment |Westernised approach to economy | |Helps to reduce development gap |Increased environmental damage die to polluting industries | |Increased FDI and investment which can lead to improved services such as |Exploitation of labour | |infrastructure, health care and education |Disruptive social impacts | |Increased exports helps BoPs, and increases income and GDP |Over-dependant on one industry | |New technologies |Destabilises food supplies, less agriculture | | |Health and safety issues because of tax legislation | Patterns of production and processes In manufacturing there has been a global shift of marketing from MDC’s to LDC’s. This leads to Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) by the TNC’s. This has led to the de-industrialization of MDC’s but means that they can also be more productive due to the transfer of technology. Newly Industrialised Countries (NIC’s) First Phase †¢ Asian Tigers (Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong and Singapore) started to appear in the 1960’s, as developed countries looked at their less developed neighbours †¢ Rapid industrialisation due to the increased spread of TNC’s. †¢ They share similar characteristics which allowed for such industrialisation: – Large populations – Well educated populations – Culture – work ethic – Less rigid laws on health and safety – Government support through loans and grants Rely less on foreign support and set up their own businesses such as the Chaebols in South Korea, comprising of companies such as Samsung, LG and Hyundai †¢ This has now become a multinational an d located in several different countries. Second Phase †¢ As wage prices increased in the primary TNC’s (The Asian Tigers) †¢ Countries that could offer lower wage prices such as Malaysia, Indonesia, The Philippines and Thailand, Mexico and Brazil Third Phase †¢ China and India, Turkey, South Africa and the Philippines †¢ China has seen the fastest rate of economic growth of any country †¢ India’s industry is heavily based around services – which accounted for 50% of its total GDP. †¢ New TNCs are now being set up in Indian such as Infosys, Bangalore. Positives of India |Constraints of India | |Large English speaking population |Other countries are beginning to compete | |Costs 37% lower than China |Negative reaction in MEDCs | |Costs 17% lower than Malaysia |Rising wage rates | |Professional salaries ? of UK and USA |High cost of training | |Low telecommunication costs |Negative impacts on quality | |24 hour working to fit with time differences |Corruption and bankruptcy | |Huge labor force for labor intensive jobs e. g. all centers |Command economy, governemtn speding on subsidies rather than investment | |IT college graduates, 2 million/year |Infrastructure beyond major cities is poor | | |Literacy only 61% | Growth in the 21st Century Emerging Economies account for 70% of the global population, countries including the BRICs (Brazil, Russia India and China) as well as countries such as the UAE and South Africa. The increase has been due to: †¢ Raise living standards †¢ Increase opportunities for the population †¢ Increase FDI †¢ Become more of a world player with market to an international standard Countries at very low levels of economic development LDCs †¢ The countries were outlined by the United Nations and of the top 50 33 are in Sub-Saharan Africa. They are defined by the following: – Low incomes ($800 GDP per capita over 3 years) Human resource weakness, nutrition , health, education and literacy – Economic vulnerability shown by signs of dependency on one industry †¢ Many of them suffer from widespread conflict, disease, geographical disadvantages, urbanisation and fast urban growth (demographically speaking). Quality of Life †¢ Most of the population cannot afford basic immunities †¢ Resources of such countries are not evenly distributed. †¢ Attempts to reduce poverty †¢ High population growth rate means that numbers living in extreme poverty are increasing. †¢ Many of these countries depend on FDI Debt †¢ From the 1970’s onwards some countries found themselves in a debt crisis because the borrowed large amounts from the developed world. For many countries at low levels of economic development that breaking free of poverty can only ever be a vision. †¢ There are certain policies being put in place by the IMF and the World Bank to help free the HIPCs †¢ They have provided debt relief and interest free loans. †¢ SAPs Structural adjustment programmes o Government spending cutbacks to fund debt repayments o Mexico was the first country o 3 main aims:- ? Promote exports- integration and liberalisation ? Reduce government spending- privatisation and cutting costs ? Encourage foreign investment o Both intermediate and poor countries have had SAPs applied o Some success but SAPs could make matters worse especially for the poorest people because:- Loss of credit and subsidies from the government ? Food production falling ? Devaluation of currency leads to dramatic rises in prices ? Less spending on health and education by government †¢ Another scheme, the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI) †¢ Aimed to cancel the debt of the HIPCs †¢ per capita income US$380 a year or less would be eligible for MDRI debt relief from the IMF’s resources Social Problems †¢ Lack of income, healthcare, education, sanitation etc. †¢ The Millennium Development Goals were set up specifically to help countries out of the cycle of poverty however they don’t look well to be completed in 2015 (the original target). Global, Social and Economic Groupings Trade Bloc is a group of nations who have joined to stimulate trade and benefit from economic cooperation. The countries involved agree to free trade between them but impose tariffs on goods from countries outside the bloc. Made for a variety of reasons: †¢ To further socio-economic development †¢ To increase alliances and trade †¢ To allow free movement †¢ To prevent war Types of groupings include:- †¢ Free trade areas- tariffs and quotas are reduced on goods between members and restrictions are put in place for goods coming in to the area e. g. NAFTA †¢ Customs unions- tariff on imports from outside the group e. g. Mercosur †¢ Common Markets- like customs unions but with greater freedom of movement of labour and capital, e. g. previously EU, current example East African Common Market †¢ Economic Unions-all of the above as well as member states are also required to adopt common polices in areas such as agriculture (CAP) fisheries, transport, pollution (Kyoto agreement), industry, energy and regional development e. g. EU Positives and negatives of trade blocs |Positives |Negatives | |Greater chance of peace between member nations. Having to share economic resources | |Faster and smoother economic development |Many countries will have to pay a large sum of money regularly to be in a | |Trade barriers removed |trade bloc | |Higher standard of living. |Elites can hold a disproportionate amount of power. | |Certain areas of a national economy can be supported – eg. Agriculture |If one courty falls in to ecomic crisis the rest of the member states are | |through the CAP. |effected | |People seeking work can move between member states– EU. Non-member states badly affected, lack of trade | |Possibility of a common currency- Euro |Loss of sovereignty | |Greater political influence |Loss of some finacail controls e. g. European central bank | |If countries become indebted member states can help bail out, Greece, | | |Ireland. | | Aspects of globalisation TNCs Transnational Corporations are companies that operate in over two countries – usually having their research and headquarters in the country of origin and locating the manufacturing plants overseas. As an organisation becomes more global, regional RD and headquarters will develop. TNCs can be split in to three different groups according to what industry they are:- †¢ Resource extraction o Mining, gas extraction and oil producing o ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell and BP †¢ Manufacturing o High-tech ? Computers, microelectronics, pharmaceuticals ? Hewlett Packard, GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca o Consumer goods ? Motor vehicles, televisions and other electrical goods Many of these are assembly industries ? Ford, General Motors, BMW, Sony o Mass produced consumer goods ? Cigarettes, drinks, breakfast cereals, cosmetics and toiletries ? Coca-Cola, Kelloggs, Unilever, Heinz †¢ Service operations o Banking/insurance, advertising, freight transport, hotel chains, fast fo od outlets, retailers o Barclays, AXA, McDonalds and Tesco Growth of TNCs Why do TNCs expand to different countries? †¢ Larger populations with cheaper Labour Costs †¢ Better government policies such as grants, lower taxes and subsidies †¢ Less stringent rules on employment and pollution †¢ Fewer restrictions due to trade barriers †¢ Greater supply of raw materials To take advantage of trade within trade blocs †¢ Allowing them to grow thereby achieving economies of scale, reducing costs, finance new investment and compete in global markets †¢ Allow them to set up in markets that they want to sell in †¢ To acquire geographical flexibility so that they can shift resources and production between locations to maximise profits To serve a global market, TNCs may globalise production by:- †¢ Produce for the market in which the plant is situated †¢ Use one plant to produce for a number of countries †¢ Use integrated production †¢ S ource parts in places where they assemble their products close to the market, GLOCALISATION Impacts of TNCs on a host country Positive Impacts |Negative Impacts | |Employment |Competition | |Injection of capital into the economy |Adverse effects on local companies which might not be as efficient | |More disposable income will create a demand for more |Environmental concerns | |housing, transport and local services |Less stringent pollution laws so more pollution allowed | |Multiplier Effect |Labour exploitation | |Investment by a TNC can trigger more employment by |Exploit cheap, flexiable, non-unionised labour forces in developing countries | |cumulative causation bringing greater wealth to the |Minimum age | |area |Urbanisation | |New working methods |Factories built in major urban centres leads to younger workers migration to the area | |Transfer of technology will create a more skilled |Negative effects on the rural areas | |workforce. |Removal of capital | |JIT developed |P rofit back to country of origin | |Escape Tariffs/trade barriers e. g. Nissan in |Outside decision making | |Sunderland |Plans effecting the development of plants are made in host country to boost profitability | |To take advantage of government incentives, subsides,|Little consiereation for local people | |EPZs (export processing zones) etc. |Dependancy on TNC | |Lower costs – especially labor |More westerniese approach to life | |To reach foreign markets more effectively | | |To exploit mineral and other resources | | Development Issues within the world Trade vs Aid Trade is deemed as the more sustainable path out of the two to economic development as it helps to promote the growth in the volume and value of goods, leading to jobs and greater incomes, some of this income will help to generate domestic demand leading to investment and the multiplier effect. This will also lead to rising living standards and gaining of skills by local people However it relies on three factors: †¢ Adoption of capitalism †¢ Economic growth to ‘trickle don’ so everyone benefits †¢ Promotion of free trade This is a similar path that was taken by the MDC’s and more recently the NIC’s. However many of these NIC’s had largely stable governments, a well educated workforce and they employed protectionist policies to stimulate growth e. g. tariffs and import quotas. However there are still problems with trade for a variety of reasons: They cannot be competitive in world markets as they need to invest in equipment, technology and training to make business productive and then infrastructure etc. †¢ Schemes like the CAP undercut mainly agriculturally based LDCs †¢ Wealth does not always trickle down to those who need it, like aid. †¢ Debts mean they would have to make millions before they made profit and due to the cuts imposed by the World Bank and IMF it often means there are public spending cuts especially on health care and education Aid can be either: 1. Bilateral – from government to government. 2. Multilateral – Where collective governments donate to an organisation (such as the World bank) who the distributes it to suffering countries. 3. Voluntary – Where small NGOs send workers to help. NGOs such as Oxfam Aid is not always in the form of money sometimes it is in the form of goods or technical assistance. There are also several ways aid can be delivered †¢ Tied aid o Will limit the power of nations and may eventually cause resentment †¢ Short-term aid o Usually following an emergency such as earthquakes or tsunamis o This can be help with rescue operations o Medical supplies, shelter, food and water †¢ Long-term development projects o Improving food availability and farming methods o Helping to provide improved shelter o Health care and education o Developing better livelihoods and improving income o CAFOD, Catholic Agency For Overseas Development †¢ Top down aid Throwing’ money at a country and allowing them to get on with it. o It usually focuses on large scale, expensive projects which are unsuitable for the local community. , such as HEP projects e. g. Nepal o It often doesn’t go to the people who need it most o Usually tied †¢ Bottom up o Mor e helpful to the local community however still bring their problems. o Small scale o Treat the individuals as individuals with creativity and intelligence o They work with people to create what the community most needs and supply the materials o They can undercut local business. However aid is not perfect and may critics say:- †¢ Aid does not reach those who need it the most, it is kept at the top by the government Aid is often used ineffectively on large scale, expensive projects which are often left uncompleted †¢ Sometimes countries don’t even have the correct infrastructure to use the aid effectively †¢ Dependency can be created which is often not sustainable is aid is a large proportion of national income †¢ Tied aid comes with strings attached, in some cases with every dollar given in aid $7 is given in return Economic vs. Environmental Sustainability ‘Development that meets the needs of today without compromising the needs of tomorrow’ This would be achieved by †¢ Human potential being improved †¢ The environment is used and managed to supply people on a long-term basis †¢ Implies social justice as well as long term environmental sustainability The capacity of the environment to provide resources and absorb increasing levels of pollution is the critical threshold controlling how far population can increase and economies expand sustainably The Rio Earth summit set out the following points for each aspect of sustainability. Environmental Principles: †¢ People should be at the centre of concerns †¢ States have the right to exploit their own environment but should not damage that of others †¢ Protecting the environment is integral to development †¢ People should be informed of projections for the future as well as the current environmental situation †¢ There should be environmental legislation and standards within states †¢ Laws should be enacted regarding liability for pol lution †¢ The movement of substances that are harmful to others should be restricted States should warn neighbours of any environmental unease †¢ EIAs (Environmental Impact Assessments) should be carried out on all major plans Economic Principles: †¢ The right to development must be fulfilled so as to meet development and environmental needs of present and future generations †¢ States should work together to eradicate poverty in order to decrease disparities in living standards †¢ The needs of the poorest countries should be put first †¢ Unsustainable production and consumption patterns should be eliminated †¢ States should cooperate to restore the earth’s ecosystem †¢ Scientific information and innovative technologies should be transferred to improve understanding States should support an open economic system, with few trade barriers and tariffs †¢ National authorities should endeavour to promote the internationalism of environmen tal costs, taking into account that the polluter should pay For anything to be effective it must strike the right balance between the three core principles – economic, social and environmental. Sustainable tourism myth or reality? As tourism is an increasingly expanding, billion dollar industry, it has increasingly been looked at to become more sustainable. Up until now it has followed this pattern: †¢ The environment attracts tourists for its attractions †¢ The money spent should help to maintain these features However as tourist flows increase it starts to do more harm than good, particularly to small areas which can’t deal with the massive influx, this can lead to the destruction of farm land to golf courses, and destroying natural habitats such as coral reefs, destroyed by water sports ,e. g. Philippines . Sustainable tourism ‘seeks not to destroy what it sets out to explore’ It attempts to make sure that: †¢ It preserves natural resources for future generations. †¢ The local communities and their culture are recognised as the most important in the tourist sector †¢ Economic benefits of tourism must partly go to those who are local to the area †¢ Everything is guided by the wishes of local people and communities At the Rio Earth Summit an environmental checklist was drawn up to show how the tourism industry could become more sustainable, these included: †¢ Waste minimisation, land use, re-use and recycling Energy efficiency, conservation and m anagement †¢ Transport †¢ Water (freshwater and waste) †¢ Land use planning and management †¢ Involvement of all stakeholders in the planning †¢ Involvement of staff, customers and communities in environmental issues Sustainable tourism is an industry committed to making a low impact on the natural environment and local culture, while helping to generate income and employment for local people. Tourist can help by: †¢ Being informed of the local culture, politics and economy †¢ Respecting local cultures †¢ Contributing to local cultures and tolerance †¢ Supporting local businesses and traditional values †¢ Use the least amount of local resources Ecotourism Is one of the fastest growing sectors within tourism †¢ An economic process by which rare and beautiful ecosystems and cultural attractions are marketed internationally to attract tourists †¢ Planning and management is an important factor o Capacity is managed o Encourages conservation, by educating local people and tourists o Focuses on the environment †¢ Criticised for being ‘egotourism’ in some cases. Sustainable ecotourism must : o Have a limit to the number of visitors to sustain the environment o Set up and run in cooperation with local people Case Studies Measuring Development- HDI HDI = 1/3 (life expectancy index) + 1/3 (education index)+ 1/3 (GDP index) Advantages |Disadvantages | |Political competitiveness |Does not take into account poverty | |More factors and reliable ones |PPP values change very quickly, inaccurate or misleading. | |Easy and cheap to collect data |Little sense of income distribution | |Sign of welfare in the future, improving health and education, |Quality of life does not seem to be that closely linked | |supply-side policies which can indicate the long-term patterns of AS |Doesn’t take account like war or political oppression. | |curve |Based on normative economics. |The success of government p olicy |Other measures such as access to internet might be more important. | |Easily comparable to other countries |Changes over time – ceteris paribus | Comparing 2 countries, Nepal and the UK |Measure |UK |Nepal | |HDI |28/187 |157/187 | |Life expectancy |80. |68. 8 | |Expected years of schooling |16. 1 |8. 8 | |GNI per capita, PPP adjusted |33,296 |1,160 | |Pop. Living on $1. 25 per day % |0 |78. 1 | |Population with at least secondary education , female : |1. 015 |0. 48 | |male | | | |Sustainability, Change in forest area (%) |9. 8 |-24. 5 | |% of population living in urban areas |79. 8 |19. 2 | Sub Saharan Africa – A country at low levels of economic development †¢ Sub Saharan Africa contains many countries with the lowest HDI ranking in the world. †¢ Many hold backs from development including war, disease, famine, debt, lack of infrastructure etc. They need large amounts of FDI that will not leave them in a worse situation than when they started. â € ¢ HDI, lowest ranked are Mali, Sierra Leone and Niger (all with an average of 0. 33) †¢ The top, ranked 119th and 120th in the world were Gabon and South Africa. TNC-Barbie in Taiwan -global shift of manufacturing †¢ Barbie, an American company Mattel , was produced a Japan in 1959 †¢ Has seen a global shift in manufacturing since it started. †¢ They moved to Taiwan in the 1960’s to take advantage of cheap labour costs and increased scale of production. †¢ At its peak Taiwan alone made more than 50% of all Barbie dolls in the world. †¢ Within 20 years Taiwan’s incomes began to rise which then led to Barbie moving somewhere else Mattel opened its first factory in China in 1987, wage prices were much lower and gradually production was mover there. †¢ Today Mattel produces Barbie’s in China, Indonesia and Malaysia – taking advantage of the second stage of NICs, the Tiger Cubs. Taiwan has further benefited from globalisa tion, as it is now home to companies that manufacture most computers and MP3 players such as BenQ TNC-Coca Cola – Global Marketing †¢ A company with a single product in which minor elements are tweaked for a different market. †¢ The company uses the same formulas, one with sugar and one with Corn Syrup for different markets. †¢ The bottle design is the same and is regulated depending on different countries standards. The only countries in the world that do not sell Coca Cola are Iceland, North Korea, and Antarctica. †¢ It is not sold in Iceland because all bottles must be the same shape as there is a large recycling project and coca cola refuse to change the shape of their bottle as it is part of their brand †¢ Labour costs may be lower in some countries, especially LEDC countries. Low labour costs = higher profits †¢ Legislation on working conditions, workers’ rights, health and safety, and the environment may be less strict in some count ries. Relaxed legislation = lower overheads = more profit. †¢ Some countries may try to encourage multinationals to invest in their countries by offering lower tax rates and financial incentives. More favourable taxation = lower overheads = more profits. Unilever †¢ Unilever is a very widespread (branches in 90 countries) – include most countries in N S America, Europe, Australasia, Russia, China, India, a number of African countries = MEDCs, NICs and some LEDCs †¢ Sales also very widespread: A lot of African countries (many LEDCs and LLEDCs), Greenland, some countries which were part of the old Soviet Union (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikstan) †¢ Very few countries where Unilever has no presence Asian Tiger- South Korea †¢ 13th largest economy †¢ Strong government †¢ Highly skilled and motivated workforce †¢ Large amounts of trade with a positive BoP Problems †¢ Move to democracy takes time †¢ Large aging population †¢ Unequal pay for women and poor working conditions for 52 hours a week †¢ Pollution with poor construction in infrastructure, roads and sewage BRIC economies It is said that these countries will be dominant by 2050, these brick economies, don’t just rely on export industries like the 1st generation NIC’s. Brazil emerging economy †¢ President Lula, who began in 2003 took the economy out of dept and is now a stable country †¢ Generates $1. 5 trillion GDP/year †¢ Reliable power, with sustainable sources, such as hydro electric power, sugar cane, bio fuels, sustainable in own Tupi oil fields FDI is the 4th largest in the world, $45 billion each year †¢ Very easy to communicate with †¢ Emerging middle class †¢ Good highly skilled work force However there are some areas where Brazil will need to improve if its development is to continue being sustainable:- â € ¢ Will become a increasingly aging population †¢ Destruction of the rainforest †¢ Increasing cost of manufacturing †¢ Poor infrastructure †¢ Unequal society †¢ Slow national growth †¢ Increased crime and corruption †¢ 25% of the population live in poverty, favelas, Sao Paulo China – Third Stage of NIC Development †¢ In 1978 China began to follow the path of development of the Asian Tigers through an export driven road to development. Communist control was relaxed to allow this to do so. †¢ Foreign investment and joint ventures was encouraged. †¢ The internationalisation of the Chinese economy is also called the GUANXI NETWORK referring to the connections that exist between Chinese people and companies scattered all around the world †¢ In order to attract foreign industry in SE China, 14 ‘open’ coastal cities and 5 Special Economic Zones were set up. †¢ They allow tax grants which would give more prof it and were in favourable locations, geographically, to work. †¢ Labour was 80% cheaper in these areas †¢ There was a large amount of FDI for the bulk of the 21st Century †¢ Receiving up to $50 million per year. In 2006 they received $63 billion, their highest recorded figure. †¢ Sustained growth of up to 10% – one of the highest in the world. †¢ China became part of the WTO meaning that trade went from just over $250 billion to just under $1 trillion, almost quadrupling as they got greater access to global markets. Problems: †¢ Dramatic gap between rich and poor †¢ Huge rural/urban migration has left thousands in the countryside isolated as well as a decrease in agriculture meaning that poverty and famine has spread. †¢ Deterioration of environment and use of natural resources †¢ Dependent on the economy of the buyer †¢ Putting other populations before their own †¢ Development of two Chinas, east and west Chongqing –largest urban industrial city in the south-western part of china, 32 million people – A major focus on migration and of the western development policy – South of the Gorges Dam – Population grows by 500,000 people a year – Chicago of china – Heavy industry dominates – Large pollution problems, air sewage – 2000 tonnes of waste a day India – NIC driven by services Many people think that the Indian service sector is driven by call centres; however its involvement in the service sector it accounts for 50% of GDP as there is a high population of skilled workers. Software and IT companies have been attracted to India because:- †¢ Second-largest English speaking human resource in the world Investment friendly and supportive government politics †¢ Good infrastructure for power, transport and data communication †¢ World’s third largest brain bank †¢ Stable democratic with over 50 year of inde pendence †¢ Large market size †¢ Investment and tax incentives for exports in certain sectors such as electronics, telecom, software and R The UK and USA has fuelled the service sector in India as Indians migrated to gain skills which they would take back to their home country. Such skills were used to set up companies like Infosys which is now a TNC based in Bangalore. Bangalore has become the centre of ICT because:- †¢ First state to set up engineering collages First t set up a technology university †¢ Grants and tax incentives for the IT industry †¢ 1991 software technology park was built †¢ Now over 6 technology parks Infosys one of the largest software companies in India †¢ Founded in 1981 and had first foreign clients by 1987 †¢ Overseas offices in Boston and in MK †¢ 455 of workforce based in Bangalore Growth in the 21st century Dubai – An RIC †¢ Dubai is located in the United Arab Emirates †¢ Globally central as i t is half way between London and Sigapore †¢ Fastest growing economy †¢ Its economy boomed upon the discovery of oil in the 1960’s. †¢ There was a growth of 300% between 1968 and 1975. †¢ There was rapid immigration. To make itself less dependent on oil, Dubai invested in new infrastructure which attracted FDI and now Dubai’s economy is heavily based around tourism as well as banking †¢ Oil and Gas currently occupy less than 5%. †¢ Borrowed money to fund many projects †¢ One of the country’s most effected by 2008 market crash, massive inflation problems †¢ Chinese and Indian banks brought a lot of Dubai’s debts Social problems †¢ Vast numbers of immigrants †¢ Poor working conditions, 20 hour day in some cases, because people took out loans to get to Dubai, and now due to little work they have to work all hours to get as much money as they can †¢ Live in poor conditions in tent cities out of the actual city †¢ Passports are taken by employers on arrival Environmental problems †¢ High electricity cost and rising carbon emissions Sewage because there is not enough water, as the city is in a desert, water is more expensive than oil †¢ Nuclear waste †¢ Adu Dhabi, must look to help out by providing solar energy Countries facing low levels of economic development Nepal– †¢ One of the poorest countries in the world – 157/177 in HDI †¢ Its GDP per capita is also one of the lowest at $1,049 †¢ Shortage of energy, supplies †¢ Little money to spend on development †¢ Due to relief little transport infrastructure, remote communities †¢ Mainly subsistence farming and tourism †¢ 78. 1% of the population live on less than $1. 25 a day †¢ Little education and health care provisions HIPC- Tanzania †¢ 40% of the population live below the poverty line †¢ HDI is ranked 152 Life expectancy is 58. 2 †¢ Annual GDP p er capita is $800 †¢ 75% of employment is based on agriculture †¢ Literacy rate is 64% Reasons for poverty †¢ Topography and climatic conditions – limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area †¢ Industry- mainly limited to agricultural products and light consumer goods †¢ Dependant on agriculture which accounts for half of GDP †¢ Products include coffee, cotton, tea, tobacco, cashews and sisal which are highly competitive and have falling prices †¢ Tourism is booming especially in the National Parks Attempts to help †¢ Government: a national poverty eradicated strategy- to reduce abject poverty 50% by 2010 The World Bank, IMF and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania’s deteriorated economic infrastructure †¢ Structural Adjustment Policies, SAP’s, poverty reduction strategy papers †¢ â€Å"Vision 2025† programme set the goals of a high quality of livelihood by year 2025; peace, stability and unity; a well educated society and a competitive economy based on sustainable growth and equity †¢ UN MDGs The results of attempts to help Tanzania †¢ Not improved quality of life †¢ Income and welfare indicators fell †¢ Even more dependent on foreign aid †¢ Increased environmental damage †¢ Pick up in industrial practice including gold and natural gas †¢ Increase private sector growth Recent debt relief in Tanzania One of the poorest countries in Africa even though it had some of its international debt written off †¢ $3 billion will be discounted over the next 20 years †¢ Tanzania’s total international borrowings of more than $7 billion Socio-Economic Groupings NAFTA †¢ USA, Canada, Mexico †¢ Set up in 1994 †¢ Aims – To eliminate trade tariffs between the three countries, pushed by the establishment of other socio-economic groupings like the EU. Mexico saw it as the best option as it had built up debt in previous years. |Pros |Cons | |Trade between member countries tripled in the first 13 years. Canada has been affected by the US increase | |Increased employment in the USA as manufacturing grew |Some US jobs have been lost as the plants have moved to Mexico | |Mexico got increased FDI as other countries wanted to locate inside |Dumping in Mexico | |NAFTA. |Mexico is being exploited because o less rigid pollution laws which | | |affects surrounding countries | EU 27 member states, set up in 1957 as the European Economic Community Aims – †¢ Promote social and economic progress amongst member states †¢ Have more government influence †¢ Introduce EU citizenship †¢ Prevent war †¢ Create better laws Positive impacts |Negative impacts | |Group activity on waste, pollution control and climate change |Loss of sovereignty over some decisions | |Common currency |Greece and Spain situation | |Large labour market due to ease of movement |Sharing fish ing grounds | |CAP support |Power of elite | |Peace in EU |Small areas fell isolated | Unilever– TNC †¢ Set up in 1890 by William Hesker Lever, who owned a soap company which revolutionised Victorian hygiene †¢ Unilever was formed by the merger of the Dutch margarine producer ‘Margarine Unie’ as they had the common raw material palm oil †¢ In 1937 Lipton tea was acquired and in 1957 birds eye joined Colworth House facility near Sharnbrook continued research efforts in food preservation, animal nutrition and health problems associated with toothpaste, shampoo and other personal products. It is one of several R D centres †¢ In 2008, the companies had over 300 manufacturing sites in more than 100 countries across every continent †¢ Unilever employs over 170,000 people and has annual company revenue of over $50 billion in 2007. †¢ Unilever has had problems with animal testing, child labour and deforestation due to the use of palm oil CA FOD- long term and short term aid Aims are to promote long-term development; respond to emergencies; raise public awareness of the causes of poverty; speak out on behalf of poor communities; and promote social justice Long-term aid †¢ Improving food availability and farming methods †¢ Helping to provide improved shelter †¢ Health care and education †¢ Developing better livelihoods and improving income Short-term aid †¢ Provide aid to disaster stricken countries †¢ Set up temporary shelters for those left homeless Democratic Republic of Congo (Kinshasa Goma), Ethiopia, Kenya Swaziland – top Down Aid †¢ Top down development is usually difficult as often hundreds of thousands of people’s needs need to be ‘catered for’ and it is difficult to satisfy everyone. †¢ The ideal goal is a communist state with a ‘one size fits all’ approach. †¢ Swaziland is in Southern Africa. It is ranked very low in the world for human development. †¢ Many individual concerns to deal with which weakened the country, AID’s, famine and drought. †¢ The number of orphans was increasing as the death rate did correspondingly. â € ¢ Several branches of the United Nations which were trying to help them such as the UN food programme, and a many NGO’s. †¢ They were distributing imported food to hundreds of thousands of people which was ultimately a good thing. †¢ However, the farmers of the local area were not able to sell the produce that they grew †¢ Therefore not able to take advantage of the wet season that blessed them. †¢ There was also a state of dependency Difficult to draw the line between those who should receive aid and those who did not. Other top down aid include large scale projects such as building dams and HEP stations like those proposed in Nepal, this can lead to the loss of valuable farm land and can limit the water downstream, leading to widespread droughts. Nepal, FoST – Bottom Up Aid †¢ Foundation of sustainable technologies †¢ Treats people as individuals with ideas and creativity. †¢ Due to the lack of energy in Nepal and the reliance o n wood, leading to deforestation and help problems in the home due to the amounts of smoke †¢ Subsides the purchase of products including solar cookers and no-smoke indoor cookers Educates people on how to make briquettes, which produce no smoke from waste, to prevent deforestation †¢ However there are limited resources to make the solar cookers and there for they are limited and rely on donations †¢ Not every community has the money to buy the equipment or has access to finding out about products †¢ Not sustainable in the long run if the donations stop Overall top down and bottom up development are both ways of narrowing the development gap, the gap between rich and poor countries. Both, like anything in life have pros and cons however the possible way forward is through micro-credit loans which give people the credit and respect that they deserve. This creates a successful and sustainable way of life and helps to lift individuals out of poverty. Economic vs. Environmental Sustainability Holes bay |Economic |Environmental | |High unemployment especially in Hamworthy gate |Ramsar and SSSI sites rare birds and invertebrates | |30 Ha of unused land, power station site |2nd largest natural harbor in the world | |Poor access to Poole town centre | | The construction of the twin sails bridge Environment:- direct flow around the support pillars of the bridge causing deposition behind the pillars, †¢ May affect the tidal flats within holes bay, and Poole harbour †¢ Sediment becoming trapped within Holes bay building up the marshes †¢ Tidal salt marshes, to the build up of humus causing the build up of peat rising the level of the and creating fresh water marshes within Holes bay †¢ Poole harbours marshes could decrease in size †¢ Destroying many habitats for bird’s invertebrates and plants alike. Econo mic:- †¢ Greatly over budget with its total cost coming in at over ? 37m †¢ Engineers spotted a large crack in the surface of the bridge making it unsuitable for use The development of the power station site will also cause an increase drain on local recourses such as schools and the area might not be able to cope, †¢ Increase the flow of traffic over the bridges. †¢ Not enough jobs generated in the area †¢ Increased population density and increased unemployment. †¢ Increased crime Brazil- Curitiba †¢ 2 million people in the population †¢ city wide service to recycle products †¢ Recycling and garbage system prevent waste issues, organic and nonorganic, with two different trucks for different types of rubbish †¢ The rubbish is sorted and distributed and reused this means that 2/3 of rubbish is recycled †¢ It also creates more jobs to help reduce unemployment Jaime Lerner, was an architect and later became mayor and designed the c urrent layout of Curitiba †¢ The city has changed from being an agricultural area to a more industrial city †¢ Flood problems have also been solved by building the parks on the flood plains and making artificial river banks around them this also prevents squatting and slums appearing in the parks †¢ Is home to many multinational industries, such as Nissan, Renault, Volkswagen, Audi, Volvo, HSBC, Siemens, ExxonMobil, Electrolux and Kraft Foods †¢ The per capita income for the city is $ 17,977 Sustainable tourism Nepal – concentrated in certain areas such as Khumbu, Chitwan National Park, Annapurna National Park and the Sagarmartha National Park, The number of tourists increasing from 526,705 in 2007 to 710,547 in 2011, – Actions must be taken in order to preserve Nepal. – Problems with air pollution from the transport of tourists and fires getting trapped in the valleys due to the high mountains – Increased demand for water and food sup plies, taking away goods from the locals – The same tracks are used by all of the tourists, erosion and destabilises the soil – Increased the risk of landslides. – Some tourists are also not respectful of people’s culture and the wildlife – Poor sewage disposal – Khumbu region problem with the amount of waste generated by trekking teams – 500kg per team all waste must be taken down the mountain rubbish there have been clean up operations carried out during training and acclimatisation time of people who wish to climb Mt. Everest †¢ for people to pay the Sherpa’s to carry down peoples rubbish †¢ Nepalese Government has begun charging deposits on tourists and are only returned if groups bring down their own rubbish †¢ Nepalese Government that they should limit the number of tourists †¢ Dismissed as it has been concluded that this will bring more harm than good, by limiting one of the country’s biggest i ndustries they could face increased widespread poverty. Kenya, Kigio Tourism is the 2nd largest contributor of GNP after agriculture. One example of where agriculture has been replaced by tourism is Kigio. Kigio Wildlife Conservancy is a 3,500-acre protected Conservancy †¢ 2 hours drive from Nairobi. †¢ Originally a cattle ranch, sold by the family to the local community who after a few years decided to forgo cattle ranching in favour of wildlife conservation. †¢ The community now receives a regular income †¢ Conservancy fee each guest pays helps towards the maintenance of the conservancy. †¢ Wide ranging habitats †¢ Many wild animals, honey badger, and over 200 bird species †¢ Protecting nearly 100 species of indigenous plant species which are being destroyed outside the conservancy. †¢ The Conservancy is at the forefront of ecotourism in the Rift Valley lakes area. Guests are encouraged to participate in low impact activities – o guided nature/bird walks, o cycling, fishing o Day or night game drives are conducted in open-sided 4Ãâ€"4 vehicles †¢ Lodges work closely with the local community and support several enterprises, schools and an orphanage. †¢ Guests can visit a group of widows that craft sisal baskets, a group that makes jewellery from recycled paper and a rug weaving factory. †¢ The lodges only sell what is made by the community and pay a fair price. †¢ A large percentage of the price is donated to the community fund. †¢ Every year, children from the local community and schools are invited to participate in ecotourism workshops †¢ To protect and improve their environment. How to cite Development and Globalisation, Essay examples

Employee Selection Principles and Techniques Essay Example

Employee Selection Principles and Techniques Essay Organizational Entry A study of managerial, professional and technical employees of a large OLL company mound that those who demonstrated success early In their career were more Likely to be promoted than those who were less successful early in their career (Dither Brett, 1991). Initial Job challenge has a positive impact on employee performance and success. The challenge should be compatible with your expectations and preferences. Employee preferences Challenging, interesting and meaningful work High salary Opportunities for advancement Job security Satisfactory working hours Pleasant working conditions Compatible co-workers Feeling of being respected and appreciated Opportunity to learn new skills Fair and loyal supervision Being asked ones opinion on work Issues Assistance with personal problems A study of business students showed the most important consideration to be the companys location, followed by salary and benefits (Barber Rolling, 1993). Another factor that affects employee preferences Is level of education. College graduates nave Deterrent preferences Trot null cocoons graduates anon tenure are also differences BTW college graduates. Engineering majors differ from liberal arts majors and students differ from C students. Age also plays an important role as well as specialization. Employee preferences change as a function of economic conditions. When Jobs are difficult to obtain, new employees may be more interested in pay and Job security. We will write a custom essay sample on Employee Selection Principles and Techniques specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Employee Selection Principles and Techniques specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Employee Selection Principles and Techniques specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In a better economic climate when there are plenty of Jobs, issues such as challenging work or the opportunity to develop new skills rank higher. Preferences also differ as a function of race. A survey comparing Job preferences of black and white women college students, found that more blacks than whites wanted a high-paying Job rather than interesting work (Muriel, Frieze Frost, 1991). The recruitment process Sources of potential employees Recruiter characteristics College campus recruiting Information provision to Job recruits Sources of recruiting: Formal > ads in newspapers, referrals from employees, employment agencies, search services, placement services of professional associations, Job fairs, outplacement agencies, college campus, online recruiting (e. G. Several major newspapers including the New York Times, the Washington Post and the Chicago Tribune have Jointly begun an online career employment service). Informal > contacting friends and acquaintances > more accurate information and more often lead to hiring. A study of 186 students at universities and training schools found that the longer the bob search, the less the students used formal recruiting sources. However, those who remained unemployed 3 months after the study began significantly increased their use of formal sources > the use of formal sources was high in the early stages of a job search and again later if the search proved unsuccessful (Barber, Daly, Contamination Phillips, 1994). Recruiter characteristics like smiling, nodding, maintaining eye contact, demonstrating empathy and warmth and showing thoughtfulness, competence and personalities are important and influence applicants to accept Jobs. College men expressed en same Kelvin AT JODI acceptance winter tenet recruiter was male of female, but college women said they would be much more likely to accept a Job offer if the company recruiter was male. Research has shown that 50% of women interviewed are offended by gender-related comments made to them by male recruiters about their personal appearance. Also, Job applicants prefer recruiters to spend time during the interview to provide information about the company, to seek information about the applicant (give the chance to the applicant to speak about their achievements), and answer applicant questions. Also issues like how comfortable the applicant feels in the presence of their prospective superiors and the location of the company are important. Campus recruiting Fewer than half of the corporate recruiters have received training in the proper techniques for interviewing Job applicants > problems with the success of campus recruiting. Many organizations are turning to computerized recruitment databases: compilations of student resumes. Colleges and universities also maintain online resumes of graduating seniors as well as listings of companies that are hiring. Also dents can access information about alumni who will serve as mentors. Universities also offer computerized videoconferencing facilities in which companies can conduct long-distance interviews with college seniors > company access to schools they may not visit. Major problem for campus recruiting is finding Job candidates who have a realistic view of the business world. Both applicants and recruiters may present misleading images in order to attract attention > high incidence of turnover in the first 3-5 years of the first Job entry. Realistic Job previews: provide information that is as accurate as possible about all aspects of a Job. Such information can be supplied through a brochure or other written description of the Job, through a film or videotape, or through an on-the-Job sample of the work to see if the applicant can perform the required tasks > reduction of unrealistic expectation about Jobs. Research shows that realistic Job previews correlate positively with Job satisfaction, 100 performance Ana reach turnover rates. Also teeny reduce ten mummer AT applicants accepting Jobs. Their effect varies as a function of the prior exposure applicants have had to the Job in question > a study of 1,117 applicants for positions as correctional officers found hat applicants with previous experience at prison work were far less likely to accept job offers after watching a realistic Job preview on videotape than were applicants who had no such prior experience (Meaning, Denies Ravioli, 1993). After the recruiting process has been completed and applicants and organizations have decided that each meets the others needs, the selection process formally begins. The Selection Process Job and Worker analysis > 1/0 psychologists must investigate the nature of the Job. The organization will not know what abilities potential employees should have unless t can describe in detail what they are expected to do to perform the Job effectively > Job Analysis: the study of a Job to describe in specific terms the nature of the component tasks performed by the workers. A Job analysis determines the specific skills necessary to the Job and from it a profile of worker qualification can be developed. Once these abilities have been specified, the human resource manager or the occupational psychologist must determine the most effective means of identifying these characteristics in potential employees, and evaluate them in each applicant. Then a score or level for the various abilities is established > the 1/0 psychologist may look at the present workers of the company to determine the cutoff scores that should be set. Recruitment decisions The company should then decide what recruitment method they will use to recruit new employees > ads, employment agencies, referrals from current employees. The response number of potential employees affects the criteria set for their selection > The selection ratio: the relationship between the number of people to be hired and the number available to be hired ( the potential labor supply). If there is a shortage of applicants and the Jobs must be filled within a few weeks, some requirements will have to be changed (e. G. He cutoff score on an intelligence test). A shortage of applicants may also force the company to expend its recruiting campaign and to offer higher wages, enhanced benefits or improved working conditions to attract and retain new employees. Selection techniques Application blanks, interviews, letters of recommendation, assessment centers and psychological tests. Usually a combination of techniques is used. In the U. S. Testing for drug use is no w widespread for all types of Jobs. Also, there is an increased concern for AIDS and some organizations screen their applicants for the HIVE. Some scientists have suggested that in the future, genetic testing may be applied to identify applicants who may be sensitive to certain chemicals used in the workplace and to predict those individuals who are likely to develop specific diseases. Testing the Selection Techniques Every new selection program must be investigated to determine its predictive accuracy or validity. This is done by evaluating the performance of the employees selected by the new procedures, through e. G. Supervisor ratings of their performance. By comparing hose ratings with the performance on the selection techniques we can determine how the 2 measures correlate. Did the selection techniques predict which of the applicants turned out to be the better workers? Based on the results, we either keep or modify our selection procedures. Fair Employment Practices 1972: regulations of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) > all Job applicants regardless of race, religion, sex or national origin are guaranteed equal opportunities for employment > discrimination on such grounds is illegal. Adverse impact When a minority group of applicants or employees is treated markedly worse than he majority group in personnel decisions, that minority group is said to be the target of adverse impact in the selection process. Any selection rate for a minority group that is less than 80% of the selection rate for the majority group is evidence of adverse impact > the company could be challenged in court for maintaining different rejection rates for minority and majority applicants, but other evidence would also have to be presented and not Just statistical documentation. Dilatoriness Stetsons Interviews and application blanks have been greatly affected by nondiscrimination isolation because questions that discriminate against a particular group can lead to lawsuits. No questions can be asked that identify applicants national origin, race, or color. Applicants cannot be asked to name their birthplace or that of their relatives, to identify their religious affiliation, or to give the maiden names of female relatives. It is also unlawful to inquire about the clubs or societies to which the applicants belong and to ask them to submit photographs with their employment applications. It is lawful to ask if applicants have ever been convicted of any crime (as conviction loud be considered relevant to Job performance in certain instance such as when someone convicted for embezzlement applies for a Job as a bank teller), but it is unlawful to ask if someone has ever been arrested because members of certain minority groups are much more likely to be arrested on suspicion of wrongdoing. Reverse Discrimination Equal Opportunities legislation has sometimes resulted in discrimination against members of the majority group > reverse discrimination: the phenomenon that may occur when recruiting, hiring, promotion and other personnel decisions in favor of embers of a minority group result in discrimination against members of the majority group. A 4-year study of 13,509 employees in scientific and engineering occupations found that women and blacks had greater promotion opportunities than equally qualified white men (Sheehan, 1992). Persons hired or promoted on an affirmative action basis may be stigmatize in this way. New legislation notes that the rights of the majority group must not be unnecessarily restrained in the effort to help minorities and that minorities should not be hired or promoted solely on the basis of percentages. Other targets of discrimination Older workers The work force is aging. Life expectancy is increasing and health in later life is improving. At the same time, working lives have been getting shorter with a trend towards early retirement. Old age formally starts at the point of retirement: 60 for women, 65 for men, but older workers are considered the ones who are above 50 years AT age. However, management still prefers to hire younger workers, despite consistent evidence from 1/0 psychology research that older workers are as productive and sometimes more so, as younger workers and have lower absenteeism and turnover rates. In general, older employees do not suffer from poorer health, diminished vigor or declining mental abilities when compared with younger employees. Studies of about 24,000 persons in managerial Jobs in the manufacturing, clerical and service sectors of the work force found that age was positively related to performance in highly complex and cognitively challenging Jobs and that performance declined with age only in less demanding Jobs such as low-level clerical or repetitive assembly-line work (Viola, Walden McDaniel, 1990). However, the stereotypes about older workers persist. They receive more negative reference evaluations than younger workers > a meta-analysis of studies of ratings of older employees found that workers 34 years old and younger tended to give less favorable ratings to workers aged 55 and older than they did to younger workers (Finniest, Burke Raja, 1995). Older workers are protected by law against ageism (discrimination in hiring and promotion with regard to age). The emphasis in the developed world should shift from planning for early retirement towards encouraging longer working lives. In Finland, the government has taken an active approach towards the employment of elder people for some years > longitudinal research program: the Finance project > developed the concept of work ability to assess the ability of workers to do their Job and to predict quality of life > increasing heterogeneity in work ability amongst older groups of workers > Nation-level action programs to promote health and lifestyle, to make adjustments to the physical work environments and to design work and organizational systems more carefully to the needs of older workers (adjustments include improved workplace design to reduce the physical workload, regular updating of professional skills and knowledge, and the introduction of more flexible scheduling of work, for example, by introducing micro-pauses following peak loads). Different countries have adopted different approaches to the issue of ageing, work and health due to their policies towards labor market intervention as well as the organizat ion of their health care systems. A major factor is whether health care is supported through employer-funded insurance or through general taxation. Workers with disabilities Employees with physical and mental disabilities are protected by law against Job Localization. Employers are required to make reasonable accommodations to ten physical or mental impairments of a qualified applicant or employee with a disability if it would not impose an undue hardship on normal business operations. Defining the term disability has proven difficult and requires some 60 pages of government regulations: in general, a person is considered disabled if s/he has a physical or cognitive impairment that limits one or more major life activities. [sensory impairment: vision or hearing disabilities, motor impairment, cognitive impairment: learning disabilities, speech impairment, mental retardation]. Research has shown that disabled employees perform as well as or better than nondurable employees do. Job opportunities for disabled persons vary as a function of type of disability: Pl with impairments of vision, hearing or motor skills experience greater difficulty obtaining employment than Pl with less disabling conditions. Women workers Women face discrimination particularly when applying for what are still considered to be traditionally male Jobs. Once hired, women receive lower wages than men with similar skills and qualifications that are performing the same Jobs do. Gender-based wage discrimination: lower pay for comparable worth. Comparable worth: the idea that Jobs that require comparable or equivalent skills should receive comparable compensation. Thus, discrimination against women today may occur less in the hiring process but more in terms of pay and promotion. Discrimination based on sexual orientation Gay men and lesbian women face discrimination in hiring in public agencies and private companies. Some companies, such as ATT, Xerox and Levi Strauss actively sponsor support groups and networks for their gay employees. Discrimination based on physical attractiveness Beautys: Judgment based on a pleasing physical appearance > has shown to affect ring and promotion decisions. Many Pl Delve Tanat phonically attractive persons also possess more sealed personality and social traits. A bias against overweight Job applicants has also been found. Job Analysis Job analysis: the study of a Job to describe in specific terms the nature of the component tasks performed by the workers. Includes information about the tools or equipment used, the operations performed, the education and training required, the wages paid and any unique aspects of the job such as safety hazards. Essential for employee selection and the design of training programs. Also, it helps in he design of Jobs and workspaces for more efficient performance. Example: if an operator has to walk a long distance from the machine to the storage shelves every time it is necessary to replenish the supply of raw material, this wasted time and effort can be eliminated be redesigning the work area. Job analysis can also uncover safety hazards or dangerous operating procedures. It can also be applied to the development of Job evaluations which are used to determine appropriate wages for various Jobs > in order to determine fair pay, judgments are made by experts that are based on Job analyses after the collection ND evaluation of data from large numbers of employees on such Job-related factors as the specific skills required, the level of education, the level of responsibility and the consequences of making errors. 2 basic approaches to Job analysis: the Job-oriented approach and the worker- oriented approach. The Job-oriented approach: focuses on the specific tasks involved in performing a Job and on the Job outcome or level of productivity. The worker-oriented approach focuses on worker behaviors on the Job and on the specific skills, abilities and personal traits needed to perform the Job. Most Job analyses involve a combination of Job-oriented and worker-oriented data. Interviews: used in Job analysis and involve extensive meetings with the persons directly connected with the Job: the workers performing the Job and their supervisors, and sometimes the instructors who trained the workers for the Job. I nose Interviews may De supplemented Day quaternaries. Questionnaires: 2 types used: the unstructured one and the structured one. In the unstructured or open-end approach, the subject matter experts describe in their own words the components of the Job and the tasks performed. In the structured approach, workers and supervisors are provided with descriptions of tasks, operations and working conditions and are asked to rate the items or to select those items that characterize their Jobs. Length of Job experience and race have been shown to influence the content of the lob analysis. Level of education and gender have only minimal effects. A widely used questionnaires is the PAS: Position Analysis Questionnaire: consists of 194 Job elements related to specific behaviors. These elements are organized into 6 categories of Job behavior: information input, manila processes, work output, legislations with other persons, Job context and other Job activities and conditions. Subject matter experts rate each element for its importance to the Job in question. Such quantifiable ratings have an advantage over the kind of information yielded by the unstructured questionnaire. Direct observation: direct observation of the workers on the Job. But Pl may behave differently when they are being watched, so it is necessary for the Job analysts to remain as unobtrusive as possible. Also, they should observe a representative sample of workers and make observations at various times throughout he workday to take account of changes caused by such factors as fatigue. Systematic Activity Logs: workers maintain a detailed written record of their activities during a given period. Critical Incidents: The critical-incidents technique is a means of identifying specific actions or behaviors that lead to desirable or undesirable consequences on the Job. It is based on identification of those incidents that are necessary to successful Job performance. The goal is to have subject matter experts indicate the behaviors that differentiate good from poor workers. A single critical incident is of little value, but undress of them can effectively describe a Job task sequence in terms of the unique behaviors required to perform it well. Research comparing the effectiveness of various approaches to Job analysis indicates that they vary in their usefulness. The choice of a specific technique must depend on the organizations reasons for conducting the analysis in the first place. Unless the purpose of the Job analysis is stated (e. G. Refining a selection or training program), the company cannot make an informed decision about which technique to use or what kind of information to seek. But generally, a combination of methods provides